Traditional clothing of some ethnic minorities in ChinaKeywords: Ethnicity; Ethnic policy; China.
1. China and the ethnic groups of China
China has a long history - one of the oldest civilizations of humankind, dating back approximately 5,000 years. The Han people first established their kingdom during the reigns of Yao and Shun on the Yellow River (present-day Hebei Province), followed by subsequent dynasties along with territorial expansion: Xia Dynasty (2205-1776 BC), Shang Dynasty (1776-1122 BC), Zhou Dynasty (1122-256 BC), Qin Dynasty (221-210 BC), Han Dynasty (210 BC-265 AD), Jin Dynasty (265-420 AD), Sui Dynasty (581-618), Tang Dynasty (7th, 8th, 9th centuries), Song Dynasty (10th-12th centuries), Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), Ming Dynasty (1368-17th century), Qing Dynasty (17th century-1911), Republic of China (1911-1949), Socialist People’s Republic of China (1949 to present).
Currently, China, with an area of 9,597,000 km2, sharing land borders with 14 countries. China established a People's Republic of China in 1949, with a unicameral (National People’s Congress) system since 1954. Administratively, China currently has 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities directly under the central government, and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Since implementing the “Reform and Opening Up” policy, China’s economy has developed rapidly, becoming the world's second-largest economy. Per capita income increased from 203.3 USD in 1982 to 4,550 USD in 2010 and is projected to reach 13,306 USD in 2024.
China is among the top 10 countries with the largest number of ethnic groups. Currently, China has 56 ethnic groups, including 55 minority groups. The total population of the country is 1.324 billion people, of which the Han Chinese make up the majority with over 91%, and the remainder are other ethnic groups. In terms of language, the ethnic groups in China today are very diverse, encompassing language groups belonging to five major language families: Sino-Tibetan, Altai, Tai-Kadai, Hmong-Myanmar, and South Asian. Specifically, the population of each ethnic group is as follows: Zhuang: 19.6 million, Uyghur: 11.7 million, Hui: 11.3 million, Hmong: 11.1 million, Manchu: 10.4 million, Loloyi: 9.8 million, Yi: 9.8 million. The population of Tujia is 9.5 million, Tibetan is 7.1 million, Mongolian is 6.2 million, Buyi is 3.6 million, Dong is 3.5 million, Yao is 3.3 million, Bai is 2.1 million, Korean is 1.7 million, and Hani is 1.7 million, The Kazakh population is 1.6 million, the Le-Li population is 1.6 million, the Thai population is 1.3 million,... Ethnic groups with populations under 50,000 include: Pumi is 45,012, A Xuong Achang is 39,555, No-Nu is 36,575, King-Jing is 33,112, Ewenki is 30,875, Bo-Lang-De’ang is 22,354, Co Nac-Jino is 26,025, Baoan is 20,074, Du Co-Yugu is 14,706, Biet Khac-Uzbeks is 12,742,…
The ethnic minorities in China have characteristics that warrant attention. First, regarding their geographical location, these ethnic minorities often reside in border regions in the Northwest, North, Northeast, South and Southwest - areas that were later conquered and expanded by the Han Chinese. Over time, some ethnic groups coexisted with the Han Chinese, but the majority of ethnic groups developed their own distinct territories as a result of historical processes. These minority groups possess their own unique cultures, lifestyles, and customs, which have been formed and preserved for generations, creating a distinct identity for each ethnic group. Some ethnic groups, having been incorporated into China a long time ago, have been “Sinicized”, retaining only a few distinctive cultural features associated with their beliefs. The majority of these minority ethnic groups have lower living standards and educational levels compared to the general population; some even maintaining backward lifestyles with outdated customs. For various reasons, both historical and present, some ethnic minorities also harbor separatist ideologies and engage in activities that destabilize political stability and social order.
Zhuang ethnic women in China2. National policy and its implementation in China
After its founding (1921), during the revolutionary movement, the Chinese Communist Party paid attention to the national question. In November 1931, when drafting the Outline Constitution of the Chinese Soviet Republic, the Communist Party of China included provisions on nationality in Articles 13 and 14, emphasizing: “Within the Soviet administration, workers, peasants, Red Army soldiers, and all impoverished working masses and their families, regardless of gender, race or religion are equal and to be Soviet citizens”. Subsequently, documents issued by the Chinese Communist Party in 1936, 1939, 1941, 1942… all contained content related to national policy.
After the civil war between the Communist Party and the Nationalist Party in 1949, the People’s Republic of China was established. The Communist Party and the Chinese government also pay close attention to the national question. In September 1949, the Platform of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference included provisions on nationalism. The first Constitution of the People's Republic of China in 1954, followed by amendments in 1975 and 1978, all contained provisions on ethnic policy. Particularly during the period of “Reform and Opening Up”, the 1982 Constitution, later amended in 1993, 1999, 2004 and 2018, emphasized constitutional principles for the nation. Specifically: All ethnic groups have equal rights; the State guarantees the legitimate rights and interests of all ethnic groups; discrimination and oppression of ethnic groups are prohibited; Autonomy is established for areas with a high concentration of ethnic groups (Article 4). In addition to the principle of nationality, the Chinese Constitution contains provisions related to nationality. Specifically, it states: “All ethnic groups have the right to freely use and develop their own languages and writing systems; they all have the right to freely maintain or change their customs and traditions...” “Citizens of the People's Republic of China who are 18 years of age or older, regardless of ethnicity, race, gender, social background, religion, beliefs, educational level, economic situation, or length of residence, have the right to vote and run for office; however, those who are deprived of political rights by law should be excluded” (Article 34),…
Of particular interest to ethnic regions with unique historical, cultural, and ethnic characteristics, the Chinese government has established autonomous regions. Specifically, the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, established in 1947 in the north, borders Mongolia and Russia and has a grassland terrain. The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, established in 1955 in northwestern China, is the largest autonomous region with a desert landscape. The Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, established in 1958 in southern coastal Guangxi, has the largest ethnic minority population. The Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, established in 1958 in northwestern China, is home to a large Hui ethnic population. The Tibet Autonomous Region was established in 1965 on a plateau with a very distinctive Tantric Buddhist culture. Perhaps because the Mong people, despite their large and concentrated population have unique historical, cultural, psychological and ethnic characteristics, the Chinese government has not granted them autonomy like some other ethnic groups.
The vibrant costumes of the Tibetan people in ChinaAfter the establishment of autonomous regions, the Chinese Constitution (Articles 112 to 122) stipulated in detail the structure, functions and powers of the administrative apparatus at all levels of the autonomous regions in the fields of health, finance, culture, education, language, writing, religion, customs, traditions,... Along with the Constitution, China enacted the Autonomy Law in 1984 (amended in 2001). The Autonomy Law has concretized the principles of the Constitution with provisions on the conditions for establishment, scope, organizational structure, functions and powers of administrative levels, decentralization of management between the central government and autonomous regions,... In support of the Law on Autonomy, China has specialized legal regulations related to ethnic policies, such as: the Law on Education (1995, amended in 2015), the Law on Protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2011), the Law on Basic Healthcare (2019), the Law on Organization of Local Government (2015),...
Ethnicity and religion are two issues with many unique characteristics, but they are two different issues in terms of perception and approach from the perspective of the governing body. If it’s a religious issue, most countries have laws to regulate religious activities, while ethnic issues involve policies to ensure ethnic equality and improve the living standards and educational levels of the people. Regarding religion in China during the “Reform and Opening Up” period, in 1994, China issued the Decree on the Management of Registration of Religious Establishments; subsequently, on November 30th, 2004, it issued the Regulations on Religious Affairs. Regarding ethnic issues, besides the aforementioned documents, the Chinese government only issues documents for organizing and supervising implementation, especially plans and programs for economic, cultural and social development for ethnic groups in general and for specific ethnic regions, particularly autonomous regions. Along with regulations on ethnic policies, Chinese law has provisions to sanction violations of the law related to separatist activities, inciting ethnic hatred, ethnic division, insulting the culture and customs of other ethnic groups, activities related to terrorism,...
Implementing ethnic policies is a crucial issue that China pays close attention to and requires a specialized agency. That is the Committee for Ethnic Minorities under the State Council (Government), a ministerial-level agency with specific functions such as: researching and advising on ethnic policies; coordinating inter-ministerial activities with relevant ministries and agencies; inspecting, auditing, and supervising the implementation of ethnic policies; training ethnic minority cadres,... In provinces, autonomous regions, districts, prefectures, and even at the commune level, where ethnic issues exist, there is a Committee for Ethnic Affairs, which is a functional agency of the government responsible for implementing ethnic policies. Like other monolithic countries under the leadership of the Communist Party, China has a mechanism for leading, guiding and directing ethnic policies and implementing ethnic policies with the motto “The Party comprehensively leads ethnic affairs”. The Party’s ethnic affairs agency is the Central Committee for Ethnic Affairs and Party committees at all levels.
With specific ethnic policies, under the leadership of the Party and the Government, and with the specialized apparatus coordinating with relevant sectors and localities, ethnic policies in China have achieved very important results. Entering the period of “Reform and Opening Up”, China focused on investing in infrastructure, transportation, budget subsidies, poverty reduction support,... Particularly noteworthy were programs for resource exploitation, labor restructuring, urbanization in autonomous regions such as Tibet, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and Yunnan. Thanks to specific policies implemented recently, the living standards of ethnic minorities in China have changed significantly. The per capita income index in many ethnic minority areas has risen compared to the general average. In recent decades, specific social policies have been implemented for ethnic communities, especially in autonomous regions, such as education, health care and culture,… Along with economic, cultural and social programs, the Chinese government emphasizes propaganda and the implementation of national unity based on mutual interests and national reconciliation, maintaining relations between ethnic groups, and between ethnic groups and the state. It can be said that during the “Reform and Opening Up” period, the living standards and educational levels of the people of various ethnic groups in China changed significantly in a positive direction.
The Chinese government pays close attention to religious policy in ethnic minority areas, aiming to preserve the traditional religions of each community, at the same time creating favorable conditions for religious activities, such as: the religious activities of believers, the religious work of clergy, the training of clergy, the publication of scriptures, the construction and repair of places of worship,… have helped to develop ethnic relations in a positive direction.
Despite the achievements made, China is facing challenges in implementing its ethnic policy. These include ongoing discrimination and inequality against ethnic minorities in areas such as employment, education, training and social relations. This model of “autonomy within unity” is in some cases, merely a formality, especially regarding legislative power, finance, and leadership at all levels. This includes excessive economic development and resource exploitation that negatively impacts the environment in ethnic minority areas, along with the migration of Han Chinese to these areas,… One of the complex issues facing China is religion in ethnic regions, linked to extremist separatist tendencies. Specifically, in the first decade of the 21st century, Jihadist groups in South Asia and the Middle East, including IS, issued statements advocating for Xinjiang’s secession from China and integration into global Islam. Some Dighur people have participated in terrorism by the Taliban and Al-Qaeda, and have vowed to return to “dye China red”... The Chinese government has used many measures to solve the problem, but it has not brought the desired effect.
3. Conclusion
China is a country with a large ethnic minority population, although the proportion of ethnic minorities is low compared to the total population, for many reasons, both historical and current, they receive great attention from the Chinese Communist Party and the Chinese government. During the period of “Reform and Opening Up”, the Chinese Communist Party and government issued many specific policies on all aspects of ethnic affairs, adapting to the new stage of development, these policies have yielded significant results, but the policies and implementation of ethnic affairs in China still need appropriate adjustments.
* Ho Chi Minh National Academy of Politics
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