Keywoeds: Cao Dai religion; Contributions; Resistance against French colonialism; Resistance against US imperialism.
1. An overview of the Southern Region and Cao Dai religion
The history of the Vietnamese people reclaiming and settling the Southern region spans over three hundred years, yet the history of the land itself dates back much further, having undergone numerous ups and downs shaped by the changing forces of nature, society and humanity. To date, the Southern region has undergone three historical periods: Funan from the beginning of the Common Era to the 7th century, Chenla from the 7th to the 17th century, and Vietnam from the 17th century to the present.
The reclamation of the Southern region began with waves of spontaneous, unofficial migration by the Vietnamese people starting in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Initially, they lived interspersed among the Stieng, Ma, Choro, Khmer and other ethnic minority groups. In the late 17th century, groups of Chinese settlers also arrived to live in Southern Vietnam. In 1671, Mac Cuu and his entourage arrived to settle in the Ha Tien region. In 1679, several Chinese military commanders such as Yang Yandi (Dương Ngạn Địch), Chen Shangchuan (Tran Thuong Xuyen), Huang Jin (Hoang Tien) and Chen Anping (Tran An Binh) arrived to settle in what are now Biên Hòa and Mỹ Tho. Subsequently, successive waves of Vietnamese, Chinese and Cham settlers arrived to cultivate and develop the Southern region. In the 18th century, under the reign of Lord Nguyen Phuc Khoat (1738-1765) and through the administrative efforts of Minister Nguyen Cu Trinh, the territorial boundaries of the Southern region were essentially established as they are today, extending from the 8°35' to the 11° parallel. The book “A Brief History of the Southern Region of Vietnam” states: “In just over a century from the early 17th century to the mid-18th century, the entire Southern region came under the rule of the Nguyen Lords and rapidly developed into a dynamic area of socio-economic growth”.
During the 19th century, alongside waves of Vietnamese and Chinese migrants, the land reclamation process was significantly advanced by the Nguyen Dynasty, with major contributions from Le Van Duyet and Nguyen Van Thoai (Thoai Ngoc Hau). In the early 20th century, the population of the Southern region grew rapidly as Vietnamese from the North and Central regions and Chinese people from Fujian and Guangdong arrived to seek economic opportunities.
Tay Ninh Holy See - a unique architectural structure of the Cao Dai faithAbout the population of Southern Vietnam, available records allow us to visualize the population growth over time as follows: in 1819, Gia Dinh Prefecture had 97,100 registered adult males (suat dinh), a figure that rose to 165,598 by 1847. The population of Southern Vietnam was 1,204,278 in 1867 (including 585 French nationals), 2,876,417 in 1905, 2,975,838 in 1909 and 3,600,000 in 1920; currently (as of 2019), the population of the 19 southern provinces stands at 35.38 million.
Southern Vietnam is a region of religious diversity, home to, among others, the Cao Dai faith. Cao Dai religion was officially established in 1926 in Tay Ninh by several prominent figures of the time. However, the emergence and success of the Cao Dai religion were shaped by the social environment of Southern Vietnam in the early 20th century. Following World War I (1914-1918), French colonial exploitation policies, particularly the predatory practices targeting the agricultural sector, such as land seizure for plantations and tax hikes plunged the people of Southern Vietnam into a state of abject poverty and hopelessness. Under French colonial rule, Vietnamese farmers in general and those in the South in particular, endured multiple, overlapping layers of oppression. Throughout this period, the people of the South ceaselessly rose up to wage a fierce, life-and-death struggle against the enemy, a struggle that grew increasingly intense and resolute over time. However, due to class limitations, the peasantry was unable to liberate itself. At the time, there was also a lack of leadership from a political party representing the vanguard class, the working class. Consequently, successive peasant uprisings were drowned in blood by the French colonialists. Facing a dead-end in their lives, the people of Southern Vietnam turned to religion to soothe their pain and find solace and shared understanding.
Beyond the primary causes rooted in the poverty and the desperate struggles faced by the people of Southern Vietnam, the emergence of Cao Dai religion was also driven by the decline of traditional religions and beliefs, particularly the waning of Buddhism as well as the disintegration of traditional social institutions and Confucian morality amidst the region’s transition into a colonial society and the influx of Western civilization. Consequently, the emergence of Caodaism is regarded as filling the spiritual void created by the crisis of contemporary religion and morality.
All the aforementioned factors converged in Southern Vietnam, creating a highly favorable economic, cultural, social, and ideological environment for the emergence of Caodaism, conditions that were either absent or insufficient during preceding and subsequent periods. Consequently, it can be concluded that the emergence of Caodaism in Southern Vietnam was a social inevitability in the wake of World War I (1914-1918). In other words, the Cao Dai religion could only have emerged in Southern Vietnam during the period between the end of World War I and the August Revolution (1945); it is unlikely that it could have originated elsewhere or at another time.
Thus, from a socio-political perspective, the emergence of Cao Dai religion also reflected the reaction of the people of Southern Vietnam against the French colonialists’ policies of economic plunder and exploitation, political oppression, and cultural subjugation. Viewed in this light, the birth of Cao Dai religion is regarded as a nationalist and patriotic movement manifesting in a religious form. To a certain extent, the emergence of Cao Dai religion can be compared to early Christianity, a movement of Jewish people resisting the aggression and social domination of the Roman Empire.
For various reasons, the Cao Dai religion split into multiple branches and sects. Shortly after its inception, specifically between the early 1930s and 1945-the religion saw the emergence of over a dozen branches; by 1975, there were nearly twenty distinct organizations and sects. Notably, these divisions were immediately followed by efforts toward unification that continued right up to 1975, involving prominent organizations such as the Cao Dai Federation (later renamed the Cao Dai United General Association in 1936), the Cao Dai National Salvation, Twelve United Sects and the Unified Holy See (1947), and Cao Dai Quy Nhat (later renamed Cao Dai Thong Nhat/United Cao Dai religion in 1952),…
By 1975, the Cao Dai religion had 2.5 million followers, approximately 23,000 dignitaries and officials, and over 1,100 places of worship belonging to nearly twenty sects and independent organizations; among these, the sects with the largest numbers of followers and dignitaries included Cao Dai Tay Ninh, Cao Dai Ban Chinh Dao, Cao Dai Tien Thien and Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao. Specifically:
The Tay Ninh Cao Dai sect comprises over 1 million followers, 355 holy sees (parishes), 99 Holy Mother shrines, 2,500 dignitaries, and more than 7,000 functionaries, with a presence in 33 provinces and cities such as Tay Ninh, Long An, Sa Dec and Cao Lanh, Ben Tre, Saigon and Gia Dinh, Long Xuyen and Chau Doc, My Tho and Go Cong and Can Tho city,...
The Cao Dai Ban Chinh Dao sect has 930,000 followers, 271 dignitaries, and 245 congregations spread across 26 southern provinces and cities. Provinces with significant follower populations include Ben Tre, Long An, Tra Vinh, Saigon, My Tho, and Go Cong,...
Cao Dai Tien Thien has approximately 350,000 followers and 107 congregations across 15 provinces and cities. Significant concentrations of followers are found in provinces such as Ben Tre, My Tho, Go Cong, Vinh Long and Soc Trang,...
The Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao sect has approximately 100,000 followers, over 400 dignitaries and officials and 49 congregations across four provinces in the Southwestern region, such as Ca Mau, Bac Lieu, Rach Gia and Ha Tien,...
In addition to the aforementioned Cao Dai branches, Southern Vietnam is home to several others, such as: Cao Dai Minh Chon Ly, with nearly 50,000 adherents and over 500 dignitaries and officials across 25 holy temples; Cao Dai Bach Y, with nearly 10,000 followers and 15 holy temples; Cao Dai Chieu Minh Long Chau; Cao Dai Vietnam Ben Tranh, with 3,000 followers across two holy temples; and Cao Dai Vietnam Binh Duc, with approximately 7,000 followers and nine holy temples,... In the Central region, there are two Cao Dai sects, Truyen Giao Cao Dai and Cao Dai Tam Quan comprising nearly 100,000 followers and 60 congregations across 12 provinces and cities, primarily in the Central region (such as Da Nang and Quang Nam),...
Thus, Cao Dai was one of the religions with a large number of followers, clergy, and lay officials, exerting significant influence in all aspects of life in Southern Vietnam prior to 1975.
2. Contributions of Cao Dai Sects to the Revolution (1945-1975)
The contributions of the Cao Dai religion to the August Revolution and the resistance war against French colonialists (1945-1954). In 1945, under the leadership of the Party and the Viet Minh Front, the people of Southern Vietnam and the entire country rose up to “fight the French, drive out the Japanese and seize power for the people”. That was the August Revolution (1945), which succeeded in establishing the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. During this period, the uprising movement in Southern Vietnam was particularly vigorous; this was because the region was a colony suffering under French oppression and exploitation and the Party paid close attention to the movement there, providing direct leadership through the Cochinchina Regional Party Committee and the Viet Minh Front. During this period, local uprisings saw the participation of Cao Dai followers and dignitaries. Notably, under the leadership and guidance of Mr. Cao Trieu Phat, Vice Chairman of the Viet Minh Front in Bac Lieu Province, followers and dignitaries of the Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao sect played a pivotal role in the uprisings to seize power. On August 25th, 1945, in Tay Ninh, a large gathering of Cao Dai followers, dignitaries and local residents led by Phoi Su (High Dignitary) Dang Trung Chu held a rally to support the Viet Minh Front in its struggle against the French and Japanese, aiming to seize power for the people.
Having secured independence for only a brief period, the people of Southern Vietnam soon faced a re-invasion by French colonial forces. Consequently, during the nine-year resistance war against French colonialism (1945-1954) conducted under the leadership of the Party via the Cochinchina Regional Committee and the Viet Minh Front, the Cao Dai religion actively participated in and made new contributions to the revolution. First came the gunfire from the Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao sect under the command of Cao Trieu Phat as they fought against the French attempt to retake Southern Vietnam in April 1946; at the “Giong Bom Front” in Bac Lieu, they eliminated over 100 French soldiers.
A notable contribution of the Cao Dai religion to the revolution during the resistance against French colonialism was the establishment and activities of the “Cao Dai National Salvation Association of the Twelve Unified Sects”. During the mobilization leading up to the August Revolution, many Cao Dai dignitaries and followers actively participated in various “National Salvation” organizations. Following the success of the August Revolution and particularly after the French reoccupied Southern Vietnam, the “United Association of Eleven Cao Dai Sects for National Salvation” was officially established in June 1947. This formation took place under the leadership of the Regional Party Committee, the Resistance Administrative Committee, and the Southern Viet Minh Regional Committee, with a pivotal role played by Mr. Cao Trieu Phat and was based on the membership of the 1945 Cao Dai National Salvation Conference. Subsequently, in November 1947, it was renamed the “United Association of Twelve Cao Dai Sects for National Salvation” and placed under the leadership of the Party; the association comprised the following sects: Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao, Cao Dai Ban Chinh Dao, Cao Dai Tien Thien, Cao Dai Minh Chon Ly, Cao Dai Bach Y, Cao Dai Chieu Minh, Cao Dai Cao Thuong Buu Toa, Cao Dai Hoi Giao, Cao Dai Tuyet Coc, Cao Dai Chon Ly Tam Nguyen, Cao Dai Lien Hoa General Assembly and Cao Dai Tay Ninh Holy See. The United Twelve Sects of the National Salvation Cao Dai Association issued a manifesto and a highly specific action program to mobilize human and material resources in support of the resistance war against the French.
The United Twelve-Sect Cao Dai Association for National Salvation established an organizational structure spanning regional, provincial, district, and grassroots levels. Between its founding in 1947 and 1954, the Association held four congresses to reorganize and implement specific activities in accordance with its manifesto: “In order to fully participate in the national liberation revolution”. In 1954, the resistance war against the French colonialists was victorious, and the Cao Dai Association for National Salvation of the Twelve Unified Sects completed its historic mission. Considering the contributions of the Cao Dai Association for National Salvation of the Twelve Unified Sects in the resistance war against the French colonialists, on December 18th, 1954, the Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam awarded the Resistance Medal, class II with the achievement: “Upholding the spirit of solidarity in the resistance war to save the country”.
Due to the specific circumstances at the time, one important point was agreed upon only verbally rather than in writing: that religious and secular forces would unite in the struggle to demand the implementation of the Geneva Accords and the reunification of the country.
The contribution of the Cao Dai religion to the resistance war against US imperialism (1954-1975). On February 7th, 1955 (the 15th day of the first lunar month of the Year of the Goat), at the Ngoc Sac Holy See (Bac Lieu) of the Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao branch, dignitaries from five Cao Dai branches, representing over half a million followers and clergy convened and decided to establish the Cao Dai United Alliance (Lien giao Cao Dai), later known as United Alliance I (Liên giao I). The dignitaries representing the five Cao Dai branches were: Grand Master Huynh Ngoc Ton - Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao; Grand Master Vo Van Tan - Cao Dai Tien Thien; Grand Administrator Nguyen Van Giai - Cao Dai Chieu Minh; Grand Administrator Trương Sy Tan - Cao Dai Bach Y; Chief Coordinator Nguyen Van Nhat - Cao Dai Cao Thuong Buu Toa. Lien Giao I adopted a seven-point common convention: 1-The Faith remains closely bound to the nation, fulfilling the Supreme Being’s guiding principle of alleviating human suffering; 2-Praying for peace and safeguarding the nation’s prosperity and the people's well-being; 3-Uniting and assisting one another in spiritual practice, performing good and righteous deeds, and wholeheartedly serving humanity; 4-Providing mutual material and spiritual support when fellow believers face hardship or adversity; 5-Supporting sincere practitioners and protecting the clergy; 6-Upholding freedom of belief; 7-Refraining from interfering in each other's internal affairs.
The activities of the First Inter-sect Committee (Liên giáo I) involved a peaceful struggle demanding that the Ngo Dinh Diem administration implement the Geneva Accords regarding the general election to reunify the country. This was followed by struggles against the Ngo Dinh Diem dictatorship and the “denounce and eliminate communists” campaign, as well as advocacy for religious freedom,...
Following the 1960-1961 Dong Khoi (General Uprising) movement and the establishment of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, Cao Dai dignitaries joined the Front in various provinces and cities. Examples include: Priest Dang Thanh Su (Cao Dai Tien Thien) in the Can Tho provincial Front; Protector of the Dharma Ngo Thien An (Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao) and Associate Preceptor Nguyen Van Nghiem (Cao Dai Tien Thien) in the Soc Trang provincial Front; and Associate Preceptor Le Ngoc Cu and Professor Ho Thi Tho (Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao) in the Ca Mau provincial Front; The Sa Dec Provincial Fatherland Front included Professor Nguyen Minh Canh (Cao Dai Tien Thien); the Long An Provincial Fatherland Front included Associate Preceptor Nguyen Van Nhi (Cao Dai Tien Thien); and the Tra Vinh Provincial Fatherland Front included Priest Tran Van Hieu (Cao Dai Tien Thien); Representing the Front in Vinh Long Province was Associate Preceptor Nguyen Van o (Cao Dai Tien Thiên); in Ben Tre Province, Associate Preceptor Doan Van Trang (Cao Dai Tien Thien); and in Rach Gia Province, Associate Preceptor Nguyen Kim Khue (Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao),...
Throughout the three years of their existence from their formation until the liberation of the South (1972-1975), the Cao Dai sects within the “Lien Giao II” (Second Inter-sect Alliance) bloc were highly active and made significant contributions to the entire nation’s revolutionary cause. Mr. Ngo Tam Dao, head of the Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao Church and a key figure of the Lien Giao II alliance, summarized the major achievements of Lien Giao II as follows: Firstly, they thwarted the plot to unify the Cao Dai faith to serve as a support base for the US and the Saigon administration. Secondly, they resisted the conscription of Cao Dai youths and clergy into the Saigon army (Cao Dai sects within the “Lien Giao II’ alliance succeeded in preventing 18,000 Cao Dai youths from being drafted, with the Cao Dai Tien Thien sect alone protecting 3,000 of adolescents/youths). Thirdly, launch a movement to fight against the US and the Saigon government in the form of peaceful prayer. Then, from a peaceful prayer movement, it turned into a movement to fight for people's livelihood, democracy and for the US and the Saigon government to implement the Paris Agreement.
Specifically regarding the Tay Ninh Cao Dai, the period from 1954 to 1960 amidst the complex relationship between the Tay Ninh Holy See and the Saigon administration saw ongoing struggles waged by Cao Dai followers in Tay Ninh. Specifically, Cao Dai followers in Phu Khuong District (referred to as “Holy See District” by the National Liberation Front authorities) struggled against the U.S.-Diem regime’s “Denounce Communists” campaign named “Truong Tan Buu” launched in Tay Ninh in 1956; the 1956 referendum to elect the government; and the protest boycotting Ngo Dinh Diem’s visit to the Tay Ninh Holy See in 1960... The aforementioned results of the Cao Dai movement, combined with other factors, created the position and strength that enabled Tay Ninh to stage the famous Battle of Tua Hai (1960), thereby helping to launch the Dong Khoi (General Uprising) movement in the South. This was followed by struggles such as the campaign against the 1966 parliamentary elections; the movement opposing the establishment of “strategic hamlets” between 1966 and 1971; lawful protest movements against U.S. and Saigon regime aggression and domination demanding civil rights and democracy, opposing conscription and the militarization of schools and opposing the 1971 presidential election; and the movement by Cao Dai University students demanding the implementation of the Paris Agreement in 1974,...
For the Tay Ninh Cao Dai, a significant and positive activity undertaken by dignitaries and followers was their participation in the “Peaceful Coexistence” movement, based on the philosophy introduced by Dharma Protector (Ho Phap) Pham Cong Tac in Cambodia in 1955. Another avenue of action for the Tay Ninh Holy See’s dignitaries and followers involved opposition to the Ngo Dinh Diem administration (1956-1960), led by Sy Tai Nguyen Minh Ngoi, Thua Su Le Quan Tan and Sy Tai Pham Duy Nhung. The struggle saw nearly 2,000 people arrested or imprisoned, with some making the ultimate sacrifice. Another avenue of activity involved participation in the revolution undertaken by figures such as Parishioner (Giao huu) Thuong Thau Thanh, Man of the Way (Dao nhon) Le Van Buoi and Major Huynh Thanh Mung under the banner of the “Committee for Consolidating Peaceful Coexistence”, a group that later became part of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam.
3. Conclusion
Cao Dao region is a religion that emerged in Southern Vietnam against a unique historical backdrop characterized by specific political, social and cultural factors, namely, French colonial exploitation that plunged the population into poverty and misery and the bloody French suppression of anti-colonial uprisings. Cao Dao region is a religion that reflects the mindset and sentiments of the people of Southern Vietnam embodying the national spirit. General Secretary Le Duan assessed Caodaism as a national movement; therefore, with appropriate attention, leadership and guidance, the positive aspects of the religion can be fully realized.
Cao Dao religion is a major religion in Southern Vietnam. The contributions of Caodaism to the revolution between 1945 and 1975 stemmed not only from the religion’s own characteristics but also from the leadership and direction of the Party. Among the three regions, the South was a territory settled relatively recently, possessing its own distinct history, demographics and culture. During the 1945-1954 period and the subsequent resistance war against US imperialism, various organizations including Party bodies, administrative and resistance committees, and the Southern Viet Minh Regional Committee were established and rigorously consolidated; these entities paid close attention to the Cao Dai religion.
The contributions of Cao Dai followers have contributed, together with people from all walks of life, to the great victory of the nation in the August Revolution (1945), the resistance war against the French colonialists (1945-1954) and the resistance war against the US imperialism (1954-1975). The contributions made by the Cao Dai religion to the revolution between 1945 and 1975 serve as a solid foundation for the faith to continue pursuing the path of “A Glorious Nation and a Radiant Faith” during the country’s era of renewal.
References
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2. Government Committee for Religious Affairs (1982), Inter-religious Agreement of the 18 Cao Dai Sects (1972). Archival document. Hanoi.
3. Government Committee for Religious Affairs (1982), Overview of Cao Dai and the revolution, Hanoi.
4. Executive Board of the Cao Dai Tien Thien Church (2001), A Brief History of Cao Dai Tien Thien - The Great Way of the Third Universal Redemption, Ben Tre.
5. To Minh Duc (2001), An Overview of the Cao Dai Minh Chon Dao Sect During the Nation’s Two Resistance Wars, Journal of Religious Research, No. 4/2001.
6. Vietnam Association of Historical Sciences (2006), A Brief History of the Southern Region of Vietnam, World Publishing House, Hanoi.
7. Nguyen Hung (1997), Bearing the Dual Burden of faith and worldly life: Memoirs of Ngo Tam Dao, Literature Publishing House.
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10. Nguyen Thanh Xuan (2013), Cao Dai religion: Historical and Religious Aspects, Religious Publishing House, Hanoi.
